References & Abstracts

Selected Abstracts
Hypnosis and Medicine

General

Salient findings: hypnosis in medical settings.

Nash MR, Klyce D.
Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2005 Oct;53(4):430-6.
Five papers of special interest to medical researchers and clinicians have recently appeared in the general scientific and medical literatures. Three of these papers are original clinical research studies evaluating whether hypnosis can be useful in treating acute stress disorder, allergic rhinitis, and distress associated with an invasive medical procedure for children. The remaining two articles critically review the empirical literature on whether and how hypnosis might be useful in a number of medical specialties.

Treating psychological problems in medical settings: primary care as the de facto mental health system and the role of hypnosis.

[no authors listed]
Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2005 Jul;53(3):290-305.
Psychological comorbidity with medical illness is associated with poor health status, complicated medical management, and increased utilization and greater costs of medical services. Hypnosis practitioners in specialty psychological or psychiatric treatment settings infrequently treat such patients, since there is a greater likelihood of patients' psychological problems being treated solely in primary medical care. Referring patients from primary care to the mental health system will most likely not result in patients initiating psychological or hypnotic treatment. At the same time, integrated provision of medical and psychological treatment in the medical office has demonstrated much higher rates of initiation of treatment and improved medical outcomes. Although hypnosis has been found to be an empirically effective treatment for many medical problems, when hypnosis practitioners do not practice in these medical sites then patients do not have access to effective hypnotic interventions for cotreatment of medical problems.

Dermatology

Biofeedback, cognitive-behavioral methods, and hypnosis in dermatology: is it all in your mind?

Shenefelt PD.
Dermatol Ther. 2003;16(2):114-22.
Biofeedback can improve cutaneous problems that have an autonomic nervous system component. Examples include biofeedback of galvanic skin resistance (GSR) for hyperhidrosis and biofeedback of skin temperature for Raynaud's disease. Hypnosis may enhance the effects obtained by biofeedback. Cognitive-behavioral methods may resolve dysfunctional thought patterns (cognitive) or actions (behavioral) that damage the skin or interfere with dermatologic therapy. Responsive diseases include acne excoriee, atopic dermatitis, factitious cheilitis, hyperhidrosis, lichen simplex chronicus, needle phobia, neurodermatitis, onychotillomania, prurigo nodularis, trichotillomania, and urticaria. Hypnosis can facilitate aversive therapy and enhance desensitization and other cognitive-behavioral methods. Hypnosis may improve or resolve numerous dermatoses. Examples include acne excoriee, alopecia areata, atopic dermatitis, congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma, dyshidrotic dermatitis, erythromelalgia, furuncles, glossodynia, herpes simplex, hyperhidrosis, ichthyosis vulgaris, lichen planus, neurodermatitis, nummular dermatitis, postherpetic neuralgia, pruritus, psoriasis, rosacea, trichotillomania, urticaria, verruca vulgaris, and vitiligo. Hypnosis can also reduce the anxiety and pain associated with dermatologic procedures.

Cancer

Hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients: a systematic review of effectiveness and methodology related to hypnosis interventions.

Richardson J, Smith JE, McCall G, Pilkington K.
J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006 Jan;31(1):70-84.
The aim of this study was to systematically review and critically appraise the evidence on the effectiveness of hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients. A comprehensive search of major biomedical and specialist complementary and alternative medicine databases was conducted. Citations were included from the databases' inception to March 2005. Efforts were made to identify unpublished and ongoing research. Controlled trials were appraised using predefined criteria. Clinical commentaries were obtained for each study. Seven randomized controlled clinical trials and one controlled clinical trial were found. Studies report positive results, including statistically significant reductions in pain and anxiety/distress, but a number of methodological limitations were identified. Systematic searching and appraisal has demonstrated that hypnosis has potential as a clinically valuable intervention for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients. Further research into the effectiveness and acceptability of hypnosis for pediatric cancer patients is recommended.

Systematic review of hypnotherapy for treating symptoms in terminally ill adult cancer patients.

Rajasekaran M, Edmonds PM, Higginson IL.
Palliat Med. 2005 Jul;19(5):418-26.
The aim of this review was to find the evidence for or against the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of symptoms in terminally ill adult cancer patients. The title and abstract were evaluated following a search through Index Medicus/MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINHAHL, CancerLit, AHMED, Psychinfo, CISCOM, Cochrane and DARE. Search terms included hypnotherapy, cancer, terminal care and palliative care. Inclusion criteria included systematic reviews, randomized controlled trials, observational and prospective studies, retrospective surveys, case studies and reports. A total of 27 papers were evaluated. Two reviewers assessed the studies, one extracted the relevant data and 10% were evaluated independently by a third reviewer. The 27 papers comprised a randomized controlled trial, an observational study, a retrospective questionnaire and 24 case studies. Hypnotherapy was used to treat a variety of symptoms, including pain, anxiety and depression. The poor quality of the studies and heterogeneity of the study population limited further evaluation; further research is required to understand the role of hypnotherapy in managing symptoms.

Hypnosis and existential psychotherapy with end-stage terminally ill patients.

Iglesias A. Am J Clin Hypn. 2004 Jan;46(3):201-13.
Existential Psychological Theory was employed as a conceptual and theoretical foundation for the use of hypnotically facilitated therapy in the management of intractable pain, nausea, and vomiting in 3 end-stage, terminally ill cancer patients. The existential principles of death anxiety, existential isolation, and existential meaninglessness were addressed with a combination of classic and Ericksonian techniques. The intractable nature of the presenting physical symptoms was conceptualized as a possible manifestation of the impact of the terminal prognosis. Direct hypnotic suggestions for the management of pain, nausea and vomiting were avoided. It was hypothesized that, as the existential conflicts associated with the patients' terminal status resolved, the physiological symptoms would become responsive to medication. After 6 sessions grounded in the principles of Existential Psychotherapy, the intractable status of the physical symptomatology remitted, and the patients responded to medical management. This paper addresses the usefulness of Existential Psychotherapy in hypnotic interventions for mediating somatic and psychosomatic symptomatology.

Hypnosis in the treatment of anticipatory nausea and vomiting in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy.

Marchioro G, Azzarello G, Viviani F, Barbato F, Pavanetto M, Rosetti F, Pappagallo GL, Vinante O.
Oncology. 2000 Aug;59(2):100-4.
AIMS AND BACKGROUND: In addition to nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy treatment, cancer patients can experience these side effects prior to a treatment session, the so-called anticipatory nausea and vomiting. As various psychological and neurophysiological aspects have been claimed to be implied in its etiopathogenesis, the present paper aims to shortly review the etiological, epidemiological and therapeutical assumptions on the topic, in particular the psychological-behavioral therapies. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The present study was carried out on 16 consecutive adult cancer patients affected by chemotherapy-induced anticipatory nausea and vomiting who had received at least four treatment cycles. All of them were submitted to induction of relaxation followed by hypnosis. RESULTS: In all subjects anticipatory nausea and vomiting disappeared, and major responses to chemotherapy-induced emesis control were recorded in almost all patients. CONCLUSIONS: The experience highlights the potential value of hypnosis in the management of anticipatory nausea and vomiting; furthermore, the susceptibility to anticipatory nausea and vomiting is discussed under the psychoanalytic point of view.

Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients.

Spiegel D, Moore R.
Oncology (Williston Park). 1997 Aug;11(8):1179-89; discussion 1189-95.
Many patients with cancer often seek some means of connecting their mental activity with the unwelcome events occurring in their bodies, via techniques such as imagery and hypnosis. Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective method for controlling cancer pain. The techniques most often employed involve physical relaxation coupled with imagery that provides a substitute focus of attention for the painful sensation. Other related imagery techniques, such as guided imagery, involve attention to internally generated mental images without the formal use of hypnosis. The most well-known of these techniques involves the use of "positive mental images" of a strong army of white blood cells killing cancer cells. Despite claims to the contrary, no reliable evidence has shown that this technique affects disease progression or survival. Studies evaluating more broadly defined forms psychosocial support have come to conflicting conclusions about whether or not these interventions affect survival of cancer patients. However, 10-year follow-up of a randomized trial involving 86 women with cancer showed that a year of weekly "supportive/expressive" group therapy significantly increased survival duration and time from recurrence to death. This intervention encourages patients to express and deal with strong emotions and also focuses on clarifying doctor-patient communication. Numerous other studies suggest that suppression of negative affect, excessive conformity, severe stress, and lack of social support predict a poorer medical outcome from cancer. Thus, further investigation into the interaction between body and mind in coping with cancer is warranted.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Hypnosis and the treatment of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
Schafer DW.

Am J Clin Hypn. 1997 Oct;40(2):111-7.
Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's Disease can be cured if they are treated as autoimmune diseases with a special understanding of the personality conflicts in the patient. The author hypothesizes that all autoimmune diseases are characterized by a high normal amount of the aggressive instinctual drives and ambivalence about their realization. Each patient's personality causes the ambivalence to be somaticized into specific autoimmune bodies that aggressively are overproduced and then attack specific tissues. Hypnosis helps in gaining insight, reinforcing interpretations, handling stress, visualizing normal intestinal areas, and controlling of the autoimmune antibodies to the normal level. This paper deals specifically with these 2 diseases.

Behavioral medicine approaches to gastrointestinal disorders.

Whitehead WE.
J Consult Clin Psychol. 1992 Aug;60(4):605-12.
Behavioral research in gastroenterology has grown exponentially over the last decade. Controlled studies demonstrate that psychotherapy, stress management, and hypnosis are effective for irritable bowel syndrome; and behavioral treatments are preferred over medical management for some types of fecal incontinence and vomiting. For peptic ulcer disease, interest in behavioral treatments has declined. However, a new syndrome, functional dyspepsia, is now recognized, in which ulcerlike symptoms occur without ulcer and frequently in association with psychological symptoms. For inflammatory bowel disease, stress management training has produced inconsistent outcomes. Newly recognized disorders for which behavioral treatments are needed include constipation associated with inability to relax the pelvic floor muscles during defecation, functional rectal pain (proctalgia), noncardiac chest pain, and aerophagia (excessive air swallowing).

Hypertension

Effects of autogenic training and antihypertensive agents on circadian and circaseptan variation of blood pressure.

Watanabe Y, Cornelissen G, Watanabe M, Watanabe F, Otsuka K, Ohkawa S, Kikuchi T, Halberg F.
Clin Exp Hypertens. 2000; 5(7):405-12.
Even when the daily blood pressure mean is acceptable, too large a circadian amplitude of blood pressure largely increases cardiovascular disease risk. Autogenic training (N = 11), a non-pharmacologic intervention capable of lowering an excessive blood pressure variability, may be well-suited for MESOR-normotensive patients diagnosed with circadian-hyper-amplitude-tension (CHAT). Not all anti-hypertensive drugs affect blood pressure variability. Accordingly, long-acting carteolol (N = 11) and/or atenolol (N = 8) may be preferred to captopril retard (N = 13), nilvadipine (N = 8), or amlodipine (N = 7) for midline-estimating statistic of rhythm (MESOR)-hypertensive patients with CHAT. Prospective outcome studies are needed to assess whether the relative merits of these treatments are in keeping with their effects on blood pressure and blood pressure variability.

Nonpharmacologic control of essential hypertension in man: a critical review of the experimental literature.

Frumkin K, Nathan RJ, Prout MF, Cohen MC.
Psychosom Med. 1978; 40(4):294-320.
Many nonpharmacologic (behavioral) techniques are being proposed for the therapy of essential hypertension. The research in this area is reviewed and divided roughly into two categories: the biofeedback and relaxation methodologies. While feedback can be used to lower pressures during laboratory training sessions, studies designed to alter basal blood pressure levels with biofeedback have not yet been reported. The absence of evidence for such changes through biofeedback limits the usefulness of this technique in hypertension control. The various relaxation methods, such as yoga, transcendental meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, and others have shown more promise. With varying degrees of experimental vigor, many of these techniques have been associated with long-lasting changes in blood pressure. The strengths and weaknesses of the various authors' research designs, data and conclusions are discussed, and suggestions for further experimentation are offered.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Gut-directed hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: piloting a primary care-based randomised controlled trial.

Roberts L, Wilson S, Singh S, Roalfe A, Greenfield S.
Br J Gen Pract. 2006 Feb;56(523):115-21.
BACKGROUND: In western populations irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) affects between 10% and 30% of the population and has a significant effect on quality of life. It generates a substantial workload in both primary and secondary care and has significant cost implications. Gut-directed hypnotherapy has been demonstrated to alleviate symptoms and improve quality of life but has not been assessed outside of secondary and tertiary referral centres. AIM: To assess the effectiveness of gut-directed hypnotherapy as a complementary therapy in the management of IBS. DESIGN OF STUDY: Randomised controlled trial. SETTING: Primary care patients aged 18-65 years inclusive, with a diagnosis of IBS of greater than 6 weeks' duration and having failed conventional management, located in South Staffordshire and North Birmingham, UK. METHOD: Intervention patients received five sessions of hypnotherapy in addition to their usual management. Control patients received usual management alone. Data regarding symptoms and quality of life were collected at baseline and again 3, 6, and 12 months post-randomisation. RESULTS: Both groups demonstrated a significant improvement in all symptom dimensions and quality of life over 12 months. At 3 months the intervention group had significantly greater improvements in pain, diarrhoea and overall symptom scores (P<0.05). No significant differences between groups in quality of life were identified. No differences were maintained over time. Intervention patients, however, were significantly less likely to require medication, and the majority described an improvement in their condition. CONCLUSIONS: Gut-directed hypnotherapy benefits patients via symptom reduction and reduced medication usage, although the lack of significant difference between groups beyond 3 months prohibits its general introduction without additional evidence. A large trial incorporating robust economic analysis is, therefore, urgently recommended.

Standardized hypnosis treatment for irritable bowel syndrome: the North Carolina protocol.

Palsson OS.
Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jan;54(1):51-64.
The North Carolina protocol is a seven-session hypnosis-treatment approach for irritable bowel syndrome that is unique in that the entire course of treatment is designed for verbatim delivery. The protocol has been tested in two published research studies and found to benefit more than 80% of patients. This article describes the development, content, and testing of the protocol, and how it is used in clinical practice.

Gut-directed hypnotherapy: the Manchester approach for treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.

Gonsalkorale WM.
Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jan;54(1):27-50.

This article describes the particular approach of using hypnosis as an adjunct to treating irritable bowel syndrome, developed within the Department of Medicine at the University Hospital of South Manchester, UK, since the 1980s. Patients receive up to 12 sessions over a 3-month period, and the majority of patients achieve marked improvement in symptoms and quality of life, an effect that is usually sustained. The therapy has a "gut-directed" framework that aims to teach patients the necessary hypnotic skills to control gut function and reduce symptoms, such as hand warmth on the abdomen and imagery. Other interventions based on particular lifestyle and psychological factors commonly found to influence symptoms are also included as appropriate for the individual patient.

Pain

Hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients: a systematic review of effectiveness and methodology related to hypnosis interventions.

Richardson J , Smith JE , McCall G Pilkington K
J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006 Jan;31(1):70-84.
The aim of this study was to systematically review and critically appraise the evidence on the effectiveness of hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients. A comprehensive search of major biomedical and specialist complementary and alternative medicine databases was conducted. Citations were included from the databases' inception to March 2005. Efforts were made to identify unpublished and ongoing research. Controlled trials were appraised using predefined criteria. Clinical commentaries were obtained for each study. Seven randomized controlled clinical trials and one controlled clinical trial were found. Studies report positive results, including statistically significant reductions in pain and anxiety/distress, but a number of methodological limitations were identified. Systematic searching and appraisal has demonstrated that hypnosis has potential as a clinically valuable intervention for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients. Further research into the effectiveness and acceptability of hypnosis for pediatric cancer patients is recommended.

Hypnotic treatment of chronic pain.

Jensen M , Patterson DR .
J Behav Med. 2006 Feb;29(1):95-124. Epub 2006 Jan 11.
This article reviews controlled trials of hypnotic treatment for chronic pain in terms of: (1) analyses comparing the effects of hypnotic treatment to six types of control conditions; (2) component analyses; and (3) predictor analyses. The findings indicate that hypnotic analgesia produces significantly greater decreases in pain relative to no-treatment and to some non-hypnotic interventions such as medication management, physical therapy, and education/advice. However, the effects of self-hypnosis training on chronic pain tend to be similar, on average, to progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training, both of which often include hypnotic-like suggestions. None of the published studies have compared hypnosis to an equally credible placebo or minimally effective pain treatment, therefore conclusions cannot yet be made about whether hypnotic analgesia treatment is specifically effective over and above its effects on patient expectancy. Component analyses indicate that labeling versus not labeling hypnosis treatment as hypnosis, or including versus not including hand-warming suggestions, have relatively little short-term impact on outcome, although the hypnosis label may have a long-term benefit. Predictor analyses suggest that global hypnotic responsivity and ability to experience vivid images are associated with treatment outcome in hypnosis, progressive relaxation, and autogenic training treatments. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for future hypnosis research and for the clinical applications of hypnotic analgesia.

Pain and anxiety during interventional radiologic procedures: effect of patients' state anxiety at baseline and modulation by nonpharmacologic analgesia adjuncts.

Schupp CJ , Berbaum K , Berbaum M , Lang EV.
J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005 Dec;16(12):1585-92.
PURPOSE: To assess how patients' underlying anxiety affects their experience of distress, use of resources, and responsiveness toward nonpharmacologic analgesia adjunct therapies during invasive procedures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two hundred thirty-six patients undergoing vascular and renal interventions, who had been randomized to receive during standard care treatment, structured empathic attention, or self-hypnotic relaxation, were divided into two groups: those with low state anxiety scores on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI, scores < 43; n = 116) and those with high state anxiety scores (> or = 43; n = 120). All had access to patient-controlled analgesia with fentanyl and midazolam. Every 15 minutes during the procedure, patients rated their anxiety and pain on a scale of 0-10 (0, no pain/anxiety at all; 10, worst possible pain/anxiety). Effects were assessed by analysis of variance and repeated-measures analysis. RESULTS: Patients with high state anxiety levels required significantly greater procedure time and medication. Empathic attention as well as hypnosis treatment reduced procedure time and medication use for all patients. These nonpharmacologic analgesia adjunct treatments also provided significantly better pain control than standard care for patients with low anxiety levels. Anxiety decreased over the time of the procedure; patients with high state anxiety levels experienced the most significant decreases in anxiety with nonpharmacologic adjuncts whereas patients with low state anxiety levels coped relatively well under all conditions. CONCLUSION: Patients' state anxiety level is a predictor of trends in procedural pain and anxiety, need for medication, and procedure duration. Low and high state anxiety groups profit from the use of nonpharmacologic analgesia adjuncts but those with high state anxiety levels have the most to gain.

The efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of procedural pain and distress in pediatric oncology: a systematic review.

Wild MR, Espie CA..
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004 Jun;25(3):207-13.
Children who suffer from cancer have to endure regular, painful medical procedures that are associated with a considerable degree of psychosocial distress. Hypnosis has been successfully employed in the management of pain and distress in the adult population, but is not well studied in pediatric populations. This review systematically evaluates the systematic research conducted in the field of procedure-related pain management in pediatric oncology within the context of a nationally agreed framework for the assessment of research evidence. It is concluded that there is not currently enough robust research evidence to recommend that hypnosis should form part of best practice guidelines for the management of procedure-related pain in pediatric oncology. However, there is sufficient evidence to justify larger-scale, appropriately controlled studies. A number of recommendations are made regarding future research.

The effectiveness of adjunctive hypnosis with surgical patients: a meta-analysis.

Montgomery GH, David D, Winkel G, Silverstein JH, Bovbjerg DH.
Anesth Analg. 2002 Jun;94(6):1639-45.
Hypnosis is a nonpharmacologic means for managing adverse surgical side effects. Typically, reviews of the hypnosis literature have been narrative in nature, focused on specific outcome domains (e.g., patients' self-reported pain), and rarely address the impact of different modes of the hypnosis administration. Therefore, it is important to take a quantitative approach to assessing the beneficial impact of adjunctive hypnosis for surgical patients, as well as to examine whether the beneficial impact of hypnosis goes beyond patients' pain and method of the administration. We conducted meta-analyses of published controlled studies (n = 20) that used hypnosis with surgical patients to determine: 1) overall, whether hypnosis has a significant beneficial impact, 2) whether there are outcomes for which hypnosis is relatively more effective, and 3) whether the method of hypnotic induction (live versus audiotape) affects hypnosis efficacy. Our results revealed a significant effect size (D = 1.20), indicating that surgical patients in hypnosis treatment groups had better outcomes than 89% of patients in control groups. No significant differences were found between clinical outcome categories or between methods of the induction of hypnosis. These results support the position that hypnosis is an effective adjunctive procedure for a wide variety of surgical patients. IMPLICATIONS: A meta-analytical review of studies using hypnosis with surgical patients was performed to determine the effectiveness of the procedure. The results indicated that patients in hypnosis treatment groups had better clinical outcomes than 89% of patients in control groups. These data strongly support the use of hypnosis with surgical patients.

Fibromyalgia

The effect of guided imagery and amitriptyline on daily fibromyalgia pain: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial.

Fors EA, Sexton H, Gotestam KG.
J Psychiatr Res. 2002 May-Jun;36(3):179-87.
OBJECTIVE: The effectiveness of an attention distracting and an attention focusing guided imagery as well as the effect of amitriptyline on fibromyalgic pain was studied prospectively. METHODS: Fifty-five women with previously diagnosed fibromyalgia were monitored for daily pain (VAS) in a randomized, controlled clinical trial. One group received relaxation training and guided instruction in "pleasant imagery" (PI) in order to distract from the pain experience (n=17). Another group received relaxation training and attention imagery upon the "active workings of the internal pain control systems", "attention imagery" (AI) (n=21). The control group (CG) received treatment as usual (n=17). Patients were also randomly assigned to 50-mg amitriptyline/day or placebo. Some psychological and socio-demographic variables were also measured initially. The slopes of diary pain ratings over a 4-week period were used as the outcome measures. RESULTS: We found significant differences of the pain-slopes between the three psychological conditions (P=0.0001). The pleasant imagery (P<0.005), but not the attention imagery group's slope, declined significantly when compared with the control group (P>0.05). There was neither a difference between the amitriptyline and placebo slopes (main effects, P=0.98) nor a significant amitriptyline x psychological interaction (P=0.76). CONCLUSION: Pleasant imagery (PI) was an effective intervention in reducing fibromyalgic pain during the 28-day study period. Amitriptyline had no significant advantage over placebo during the study period.

Controlled trial of hypnotherapy in the treatment of refractory fibromyalgia.

Haanen HC, Hoenderdos HT, van Romunde LK, Hop WC, Mallee C, Terwiel JP, Hekster GB.
The Journal of Rheumatology. 1991 Jan;18(1):72-5.
In a controlled study, 40 patients with refractory fibromyalgia were randomly allocated to treatment with either hypnotherapy or physical therapy for 12 weeks with followup at 24 weeks. Compared with the patients in the physical therapy group, the patients in the hypnotherapy group showed a significantly better outcome with respect to their pain experience, fatigue on awakening, sleep pattern and global assessment at 12 and 24 weeks, but this was not reflected in an improvement of the total myalgic score measured by a dolorimeter. At baseline most patients in both groups had strong feelings of somatic and psychic discomfort as measured by the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. These feelings showed a significant decrease in patients treated by hypnotherapy compared with physical therapy, but they remained abnormally strong in many cases. We conclude hypnotherapy may be useful in relieving symptoms in patients with refractory fibromyalgia.

Headache

Effect of autogenic training on drug consumption in patients with primary headache: an 8-month follow-up study.

Zsombok T, Juhasz G, Budavari A, Vitrai J, Bagdy G.
Headache. 2003 Mar;43(3):251-7.
OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of Schultz-type autogenic training on headache-related drug consumption and headache frequency in patients with migraine, tension-type, or mixed (migraine plus tension-type) headache over an 8-month period. BACKGROUND: Behavioral treatments often are used alone or adjunctively for different types of headache. There are, however, only a few studies that have compared the efficacy and durability of the same treatment in different types of primary headache, and the effects of treatment on headache-related drug consumption rarely have been assessed even in these studies. METHODS: Twenty-five women with primary headache (11 with mixed headache, 8 with migraine, and 6 with tension-type headache) were evaluated via an open-label, self-controlled, 8-month, follow-up study design. After an initial 4 months of observation, patients began learning Schultz-type autogenic training as modified for patients with headache. They practiced autogenic training on a regular basis for 4 months. Based on data from headache diaries and daily medication records, headache frequencies and the amounts of analgesics, "migraine-specific" drugs (ergots and triptans), and anxiolytics taken by the patients were compared in the three subgroups over the 8-month period. Results.-From the first month of implementation of autogenic training, headache frequencies were significantly reduced in patients with tension-type and mixed headache. Significant reduction in frequency was achieved in patients with migraine only from the third month of autogenic training. Decreases in headache frequencies were accompanied by decreases in consumption of migraine drugs and analgesics resulting in significant correlations among these parameters. Reduction in consumption of anxiolytic drugs was more rapid and robust in patients with tension-type headache compared to patients with migraine, and this outcome failed to show any correlation with change in headache frequency. CONCLUSION: Schultz-type autogenic training is an effective therapeutic approach that may lead to a reduction in both headache frequency and the use of headache medication.

Treatment of chronic tension-type headache with hypnotherapy: a single-blind time controlled study.

Melis PM, Rooimans W, Spierings EL, Hoogduin CA.
Headache. 1991 Nov;31(10):686-9.
We investigated the effectiveness of a special hypnotherapy technique in the treatment of chronic tension-type headache. A waitinglist control group was used to control for the changes in headache activity due to the passage of time. The results showed significant reductions in the number of headache days (p less than 0.05), the number of headache hours (p less than 0.05) and headache intensity (p less than 0.05). The improvement was confirmed by the subjective evaluation data gathered with the use of a questionnaire and by a significant reduction in anxiety scores (p less than 0.01).

Comparison of self-hypnosis and propranolol in the treatment of juvenile classic migraine.

Olness K, MacDonald JT, Uden DL.
Pediatrics. 1987 Apr;79(4):593-7.
In a prospective study we compared propranolol, placebo, and self-hypnosis in the treatment of juvenile classic migraine. Children aged 6 to 12 years with classic migraine who had no previous specific treatment were randomized into propranolol (at 3 mg/kg/d) or placebo groups for a 3-month period and then crossed over for 3 months. After this 6-month period, each child was taught self-hypnosis and used it for 3 months. Twenty-eight patients completed the entire study. The mean number of headaches per child for 3 months during the placebo period was 13.3 compared with 14.9 during the propranolol period and 5.8 during the self-hypnosis period. Statistical analysis showed a significant association between decrease in headache frequency and self-hypnosis training (P = .045). There was no significant change in subjective or objective measures of headache severity with either therapy.

Dentistry

"Hypnopuncture"--a dental-emergency treatment concept for patients with a distinctive gag reflex.

Eitner S, Wichmann M, Holst S. Friedrich.
Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2005 Jan;53(1):60-73.
The present case report describes a newly developed dental treatment concept for patients with a distinctive gag reflex. "Hypnopuncture" is a combination therapy of hypnosis and acupuncture. Its simple, fast, and effective application autonomous of the cause makes it a valuable tool for dental-emergency treatment procedures. Physiologic and psychological aspects of gagging are influenced at the same time. The protocol is illustrated in the case of a 76-year-old patient with a severe gag reflex who was successfully treated by this combination approach. Necessary and effective therapeutic measures from both acupuncture and hypnosis are portrayed.

Medical hypnosis for temporomandibular disorders: treatment efficacy and medical utilization outcome.

Simon EP, Lewis DM.
Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000 Jul;90(1):54-63.
AIM: The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a particular behavioral medicine treatment modality, medical hypnosis, on reducing the pain symptoms of temporomandibular disorders (TMD). METHODS: Twenty-eight patients who were recalcitrant to conservative treatment for TMD participated in a medical hypnosis treatment program and completed measures of their pain symptoms on 4 separate occasions: during wait list, before treatment, after treatment, and at a 6-month follow-up. In addition, pretreatment and posttreatment medical use were examined. RESULTS: Statistical analysis of this open trial suggests that medical hypnosis is a potentially valuable treatment modality for TMD. Patients reported a significant decrease in pain frequency (F [3, 87] = 14.79, P<.001), pain duration (F [3, 87] = 9.56, P<.001), and pain intensity (F [3, 87] = 15.08, P<. 001), and an increase in daily functioning. Analysis suggests that their symptoms did not simply spontaneously improve, and that their treatment gains were maintained for 6 months after hypnosis treatment. Further, after hypnosis treatment, patients exhibited a significant reduction in medical use. CONCLUSION: Medical hypnosis appears to be an effective treatment modality for TMD, in terms of reducing both symptoms and medical use.

Selected References
Hypnosis and Medicine

(References listed according to publication date and by category)

General

Salient findings: hypnosis in medical settings.
Nash MR, Klyce D. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2005 Oct;53(4):430-6.

Treating psychological problems in medical settings: primary care as the de facto mental health system and the role of hypnosis.
[no author listed] Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2005 Jul;53(3):290-305.

Hypnotic suggestion reduces conflict in the human brain.
Raz A, Fan J, Posner MI. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jul 12;102(28):9978-83. Epub 2005 Jun 30.

Integration of hypnosis with acupuncture: possible benefits and case examples.
Samuels N. Am J Clin Hypn. 2005 Apr;47(4):243-8.

Hypnosis in contemporary medicine.
Stewart JH. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005 Apr;80(4):511-24.

"Hypnopuncture"--a dental-emergency treatment concept for patients with a distinctive gag reflex.
Eitner S, Wichmann M, Holst S. Friedrich. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2005 Jan;53(1):60-73.

Can words hurt? Patient-provider interactions during invasive procedures.
Lang EV, Hatsiopoulou O, Koch T, Berbaum K, Lutgendorf S, Kettenmann E, Logan H, Kaptchuk TJ. Pain. 2005 Mar;114(1-2):303-9. Epub 2005 Jan 26. Comment in: Pain. 2005 Sep;117(1-2):239; author reply 239-40.

Cancer

Hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients: a systematic review of effectiveness and methodology related to hypnosis interventions.
Richardson J, Smith JE, McCall G, Pilkington K. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006 Jan;31(1):70-84.

Systematic review of hypnotherapy for treating symptoms in terminally ill adult cancer patients.
Rajasekaran M, Edmonds PM, Higginson IL. Palliat Med. 2005 Jul;19(5):418-26.

Integrative oncology: complementary therapies for pain, anxiety, and mood disturbance.
Deng G, Cassileth BR. CA Cancer J Clin. 2005 Mar-Apr;55(2):109-16.

Hypnotherapy in radiotherapy patients: a randomized trial.
Stalpers LJ, da Costa HC, Merbis MA, Fortuin AA, Muller MJ, van Dam FS. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Feb 1;61(2):499-506.

The efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of procedural pain and distress in pediatric oncology: a systematic review.
Wild MR, Espie CA. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004 Jun;25(3):207-13.

Hypnosis and existential psychotherapy with end-stage terminally ill patients. Am J Clin Iglesias A. Hypn. 2004 Jan;46(3):201-13.

A pilot randomized trial assessing the effects of autogenic training in early stage cancer patients in relation to psychological status and immune system responses.
Hidderley M, Holt M. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2004 Mar;8(1):61-5.

The integration of hypnosis into a model of palliative care.
Marcus J, Elkins G, Mott F. Integr Cancer Ther. 2003 Dec;2(4):365-70.

Mind-body therapies for the management of pain.
Astin JA. Clin J Pain. 2004 Jan-Feb;20(1):27-32.

A model of hypnotic intervention for palliative care.
Marcus J, Elkins G, Mott F. Adv Mind Body Med. 2003 Summer;19(2):24-7.

Options for the prevention and management of acute chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting in children.
Dupuis LL, Nathan PC. Paediatr Drugs. 2003;5(9):597-613.

Clinical hypnosis in the alleviation of procedure-related pain in pediatric oncology patients.
Liossi C, Hatira P. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2003 Jan;51(1):4-28.

Hypnosis-facilitated relaxation using self-guided imagery during dermatologic procedures.
Shenefelt PD. Am J Clin Hypn. 2003 Jan;45(3):225-32.

The effect of hypnotic-guided imagery on psychological well-being and immune function in patients with prior breast cancer.
Bakke AC, Purtzer MZ, Newton P. J Psychosom Res. 2002 Dec;53(6):1131-7.

Brief presurgery hypnosis reduces distress and pain in excisional breast biopsy patients.
Montgomery GH, Weltz CR, Seltz M, Bovbjerg DH. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2002 Jan;50(1):17-32.

The hypnotic dreams of healthy children and children with cancer: a quantitative and qualitative analysis.
LeBaron S, Fanurik D, Zeltzer LK. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2001 Oct;49(4):305-19.

Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of pain, dyspnea, and nausea and vomiting near the end of life. A systematic review.
Pan CX, Morrison RS, Ness J, Fugh-Berman A, Leipzig RM. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000 Nov;20(5):374-87.

Hypnosis in the treatment of anticipatory nausea and vomiting in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy.
Marchioro G, Azzarello G, Viviani F, Barbato F, Pavanetto M, Rosetti F, Pappagallo GL, Vinante O. Oncology. 2000 Aug;59(2):100-4.

Empowering the patient: hypnosis in the management of cancer, surgical disease and chronic pain.
Lynch DF Jr. Am J Clin Hypn. 1999 Oct;42(2):122-30.

A developmentally sensitive approach to clinical hypnosis for chronically and terminally ill adolescents.
Harper GW. Am J Clin Hypn. 1999 Jul;42(1):50-60.

Behavioral interventions in the diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of children with cancer.
DuHamel KN, Redd WH, Vickberg SM. Acta Oncol. 1999;38(6):719-34.

Alteration of memory in the reduction of children's distress during repeated aversive medical procedures.
Chen E, Zeltzer LK, Craske MG, Katz ER. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999 Aug;67(4):481-90.

Clinical hypnosis versus cognitive behavioral training for pain management with pediatric cancer patients undergoing bone marrow aspirations.
Liossi C, Hatira P. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1999 Apr;47(2):104-16.

Hypnotherapy: complementary support in cancer care.
Pattison J. Nurs Stand. 1997 Sep 17;11(52):44-6.

Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients.
Spiegel D, Moore R. Oncology (Williston Park). 1997 Aug;11(8):1179-89; discussion 1189-95.

Hypnosis and cancer: an annotated bibliography 1985-1995.
Steggles S, Maxwell J, Lightfoot NE, Damore-Petingola S, Mayer C. Am J Clin Hypn. 1997 Jan;39(3):187-200.

Hypnosis for children and adolescents with cancer: an annotated bibliography, 1985-1995.
Steggles S, Damore-Petingola S, Maxwell J, Lightfoot N. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 1997 Jan;14(1):27-32.

Hypnotherapy in palliative care.
Finlay IG, Jones OL. J R Soc Med. 1996 Sep;89(9):493-6.

Hypnotherapy treatment for dysphagia.
Kopel KF, Quinn M. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1996 Apr;44(2):101-5.

The use of hypnosis in helping cancer patients control anxiety, pain, and emesis: a review of recent empirical studies.
Genuis ML. Am J Clin Hypn. 1995 Apr;37(4):316-25.

Psychological preparation for pediatric oncology patients undergoing painful procedures: a methodological critique of the research.
Rape RN, Bush JP. Child Health Care. 1994 Winter;23(1):51-67.

Hypnosis in the prevention of chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting in children: a prospective study.
Jacknow DS, Tschann JM, Link MP, Boyce WT. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1994 Aug;15(4):258-64.

Cognitive-behavioral interventions for children's distress during bone marrow aspirations and lumbar punctures: a critical review.
Ellis JA, Spanos NP. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1994 Feb;9(2):96-108.

Behavioral treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.
Oncology (Williston Park). 1993 Dec;7(12):83-9; discussion 93-4, 97.
Morrow GR, Hickok JT.

Effects of psychological treatment on cancer patients: a critical review.
Trijsburg RW, van Knippenberg FC, Rijpma SE. Psychosom Med. 1992 Jul-Aug;54(4):489-517.

The use of hypnosis with cancer patients.
Levitan AA. Psychiatr Med. 1992;10(1):119-31.

Raynaud's Disease

Biofeedback, cognitive-behavioral methods, and hypnosis in dermatology: is it all in your mind?
Shenefelt PD. Dermatol Ther. 2003;16(2):114-22.

The behavioral treatment of Raynaud's disease: a review.
Rose GD, Carlson JG. Biofeedback Self Regul. 1987 Dec;12(4):257-72.

Biofeedback, autogenic training, and progressive relaxation in the treatment of Raynaud's disease: a comparative study.
Keefe FJ, Surwit RS, Pilon RN . J Appl Behav Anal. 1980 Spring;13(1):3-11.

Behavioral treatment of Raynaud's disease.
Surwit RS, Pilon RN, Fenton CH. J Behav Med. 1978 Sep;1(3):323-35.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Stress and mind-body impact on the course of inflammatory bowel diseases.
Anton PA. Semin Gastrointest Dis. 1999 Jan;10(1):14-9.

A stress management programme for inflammatory bowel disease patients.
Milne B, Joachim G, Niedhardt J.J Adv Nurs. 1986 Sep;11(5):561-7.

Hypnosis and the treatment of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
Schafer DW. Am J Clin Hypn. 1997 Oct;40(2):111-7.

Behavioral medicine approaches to gastrointestinal disorders.
Whitehead WE. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1992 Aug;60(4):605-12.

Hypnotherapy for crohn's disease. A promising complementary/alternative therapy.
Abela MB. Integr. Med. 2000 Mar 21;2(2):127-131.

Hypnosis and the treatment of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
Schafer DW. Am J Clin Hypn. 1997 Oct;40(2):111-7.

Hypertension

Effects of autogenic training and antihypertensive agents on circadian and circaseptan variation of blood pressure.
Watanabe Y, Cornelissen G, Watanabe M, Watanabe F, Otsuka K, Ohkawa S, Kikuchi T, Halberg F. (2003). Clin Exp Hypertens;25(7):405-12.

Effects of diaphragmatic breathing on ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate.
Lee JS, Lee MS, Lee JY, Cornelissen G, Otsuka K, Halberg F (2003). Biomed Pharmacother; 57 Suppl 1:87s-91s.

Essential hypertension and stress. When do yoga, psychotherapy and autogenic training help?
Herrmann JM. (2002). Fortschr Med;144(19):38-41.

Stress management techniques: are they all equivalent, or do they have specific effects?
Lehrer PM, Carr R, Sargunaraj D, Woolfolk RL (1994). Biofeedback Self Regul; 19(4):353-401.

The effect of verbal instructions on blood pressure measurement.
Amigo I, Cuesta V, Fernandez A Gonzalez A (1993). J Hypertens; 11(3):293-6.

Hypertension and biofeedback.
Fahrion SL (1991). Prim Care; 18(3):663-82.

Long-term effects of a complex behavioral treatment of essential hypertension.
Lehnert H, Kaluza K, Vetter H , Losse H, Dorst K (1987). Psychosom Med; 49(4):422-30.

Nonpharmacologic control of essential hypertension in man: a critical review of the experimental literature.
Frumkin K, Nathan RJ, Prout MF, Cohen MC (1978). Psychosom Med; 40(4):294-320.

Effects of autogenic training and antihypertensive agents on circadian and circaseptan variation of blood pressure.
Watanabe Y, Cornelissen G, Watanabe M, Watanabe F, Otsuka K, Ohkawa S, Kikuchi T, Halberg F (2003). Clin Exp Hypertens;25(7):405-12.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Gut-directed hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: piloting a primary care-based randomised controlled trial.
Roberts L, Wilson S, Singh S, Roalfe A, Greenfield S. Br J Gen Pract. 2006 Feb;56(523):115-21.

Hypnosis home treatment for irritable bowel syndrome: a pilot study.
Palsson OS, Turner MJ, Whitehead WE. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jan;54(1):85-99.

Standardized hypnosis treatment for irritable bowel syndrome: the North Carolina protocol.
Palsson OS. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jan;54(1):51-64.

Gut-directed hypnotherapy: the Manchester approach for treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.
Gonsalkorale WM. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jan;54(1):27-50.

Hypnosis for irritable bowel syndrome: the empirical evidence of therapeutic effects.
Whitehead WE. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jan;54(1):7-20.

Treatment with hypnotherapy reduces the sensory and motor component of the gastrocolonic response in irritable bowel syndrome.
Simren M, Ringstrom G, Bjornsson ES, Abrahamsson H. Psychosom Med. 2004 Mar-Apr;66(2):233-8.

Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome.
Gonsalkorale WM, Miller V, Afzal A, Whorwell PJ. Gut. 2003 Nov;52(11):1623-9.

Gut-focused hypnotherapy normalizes disordered rectal sensitivity in patients with irritable bowel syndrome.
Lea R, Houghton LA, Calvert EL, Larder S, Gonsalkorale WM, Whelan V, Randles J, Cooper P, Cruickshanks P, Miller V, Whorwell PJ. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003 Mar 1;17(5):635-42.

Long-term improvement in functional dyspepsia using hypnotherapy.
Calvert EL, Houghton LA, Cooper P, Morris J, Whorwell PJ. Gastroenterology. 2002 Dec;123(6):1778-85.

Visceral sensation and emotion: a study using hypnosis.
Houghton LA, Calvert EL, Jackson NA, Cooper P, Whorwell PJ. Gut. 2002 Nov;51(5):701-4.

Hypnotherapy in irritable bowel syndrome: a large-scale audit of a clinical service with examination of factors influencing responsiveness.
Gonsalkorale WM, Houghton LA, Whorwell PJ. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002 Apr;97(4):954-61.

Hypnotherapy and therapeutic audiotape: effective in previously unsuccessfully treated irritable bowel syndrome?
Forbes A, MacAuley S, Chiotakakou-Faliakou E. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2000 Nov;15(5-6):328-34.

Biofeedback treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.
Barak N, Ishai R, Lev-Ran E. Harefuah. 1999 Aug;137(3-4):105-7, 175.

Physiological effects of emotion: assessment via hypnosis.
Whorwell PJ, Houghton LA, Taylor EE, Maxton DG. Lancet. 1992 Jul 11;340(8811):69-72.

Hypnotherapy in severe irritable bowel syndrome: further experience.
Whorwell PJ, Prior A, Colgan SM. Gut. 1987 Apr;28(4):423-5.

Controlled trial of hypnotherapy in the treatment of severe refractory irritable-bowel syndrome.
Whorwell PJ, Prior A, Faragher EB. Lancet. 1984 Dec 1;2(8414):1232-4.

Pain

Hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients: a systematic review of effectiveness and methodology related to hypnosis interventions.
Richardson J , Smith JE , McCall G Pilkington K. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006 Jan;31(1):70-84.

Hypnotic treatment of chronic pain.
Jensen M , Patterson DR . J Behav Med. 2006 Feb;29(1):95-124. Epub 2006 Jan 11.

Pain and anxiety during interventional radiologic procedures: effect of patients' state anxiety at baseline and modulation by nonpharmacologic analgesia adjuncts.
Schupp CJ , Berbaum K , Berbaum M , Lang EV. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005 Dec;16(12):1585-92.

The cognitive modulation of pain: hypnosis- and placebo-induced analgesia.
Kupers R , Faymonville ME , Laureys S. Prog Brain Res. 2005;150:251-69.

Hypnosis for pain management in the older adult.
Cuellar NG. Pain Manag Nurs. 2005 Sep;6(3):105-11.

Systematic review of hypnotherapy for treating symptoms in terminally ill adult cancer patients.
Rajasekaran M , Edmonds PM , Higginson IL. Palliat Med. Jul;19(5):418-26.

The effects of hypnotic and nonhypnotic imaginative suggestion on pain.
Milling LS , Kirsch I , Allen GJ , Reutenauer EL. Ann Behav Med. 2005 Apr;29(2):116-27.

Can words hurt? Patient-provider interactions during invasive procedures.
Lang EV, Hatsiopoulou O, Koch T, Berbaum K, Lutgendorf S, Kettenmann E, Logan H, Kaptchuk TJ. Pain. 2005 Mar;114(1-2):303-9. Epub 2005 Jan 26.

Brain correlates of subjective reality of physically and psychologically induced pain.
Raij TT, Numminen J, Narvanen S, Hiltunen J, Hari R. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Feb 8;102(6):2147-51. Epub 2005 Jan 31.

Clinical hypnosis modulates functional magnetic resonance imaging signal intensities and pain perception in a thermal stimulation paradigm.
Schulz-Stubner S, Krings T, Meister IG, Rex S, Thron A, Rossaint R. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 1 2004 Nov-Dec;29(6):549-56.

The efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of procedural pain and distress in pediatric oncology: a systematic review.
Wild MR, Espie CA. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004 Jun;25(3):207-13.

The neurobiology of pain, affect and hypnosis.
Feldman JB. Am J Clin Hypn. 2004 Jan;46(3):187-200.

Clinical hypnosis in the alleviation of procedure-related pain in pediatric oncology patients.
Liossi C, Hatira P. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2003 Jan;51(1):4-28.

Neural circuitry underlying pain modulation: expectation, hypnosis, placebo.
Ploghaus A, Becerra L, Borras C, Borsook D. Trends Cogn Sci. 2003 May;7(5):197-200.

The effectiveness of adjunctive hypnosis with surgical patients: a meta-analysis.
Montgomery GH, David D, Winkel G, Silverstein JH, Bovbjerg DH.
Anesth Analg. 2002 Jun;94(6):1639-45.

Hypnorelaxation as treatment for myofascial pain disorder: a comparative study.
Winocur E, Emodi-Perlman A, Halachmi M, Eli I. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2002 Apr;93(4):429-34.

The effect of Rapid Induction Analgesia on subjective pain ratings and pain tolerance.
Wright BR, Drummond. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2001 Apr;49(2):109-22.

Psychological assessment and treatment of patients with neuropathic pain.
Haythornthwaite JA, Benrud-Larson LM. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2001 Apr;5(2):124-9.

Self-hypnosis for patients with cystic fibrosis.
Anbar RD. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2000 Dec;30(6):461-5.

The use of imagery suggestions during administration of local anesthetic in pediatric dental patients.
Peretz B, Bimstein E. ASDC J Dent Child. 2000 Jul-Aug;67(4):263-7, 231.

Medical hypnosis for temporomandibular disorders: treatment efficacy and medical utilization outcome.
Simon EP, Lewis DM. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000 Jul;90(1):54-63.

Adjunctive non-pharmacological analgesia for invasive medical procedures: a randomised trial.
Lang EV, Benotsch EG, Fick LJ, Lutgendorf S, Berbaum ML, Berbaum KS, Logan, Spiegel D. Lancet. 2000 Apr 29;355(9214):1486-90.

Neural mechanisms of antinociceptive effects of hypnosis.
Faymonville ME, Laureys S, Degueldre C, DelFiore G, Luxen A, Franck G, Lamy, Maquet. Anesthesiology. 2000 May;92(5):1257-67.

Rapid induction analgesia for the alleviation of procedural pain during burn care.
Wright BR, Drummond PD. Burns. 2000 May;26(3):275-82.

Clinical hypnosis versus cognitive behavioral training for pain management with pediatric cancer patients undergoing bone marrow aspirations.
Liossi C, Hatira P. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1999 Apr;47(2):104-16.

Awareness during general anesthesia: new technology for an old problem.
Halliburton JR. CRNA. 1998 May;9(2):39-43.

Self-hypnosis training as an adjunctive treatment in the management of pain associated with sickle cell disease.
Dinges DF, Whitehouse WG, Orne EC, Bloom PB, Carlin MM, Bauer, Gillen, Shapiro, Ohene-Frempong K, Dampier C, Orne MT. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1997 Oct;45(4):417-32.

Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients.
Spiegel D, Moore R. Oncology. 1997 Aug;11(8):1179-89; discussion 1189-95.

Self-hypnotic relaxation during interventional radiological procedures: effects on pain perception and intravenous drug use.
Lang EV, Joyce JS, Spiegel D, Hamilton D, Lee. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1996 Apr;44(2):106-19.

Hypnotic relaxation: a new sedative tool for colonoscopy?
Cadranel JF, Benhamou Y, Zylberberg P, Novello P, Luciani F, Valla D, Opolon P. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1994 Mar;18(2):127-9.

Hypnotherapy for reflex sympathetic dystrophy.
Gainer MJ. Am J Clin Hypn. 1992 Apr;34(4):227-32.

Use of hypnosis before and during angioplasty.
Weinstein EJ, Au PK. Am J Clin Hypn. 1991 Jul;34(1):29-37.

Postoperative analgesic requirements in patients exposed to positive intraoperative suggestions.
McLintock TT, Aitken H, Downie CF, Kenny GN. BMJ. 1990 Oct 6;301(6755):788-90.

Gradual increase in cutaneous threshold induced by repeated hypnosis of healthy individuals and patients with atopic eczema.
Hajek P, Jakoubek B, Radil T. Percept Mot Skills. 1990 Apr;70(2):549-50.

Fibromyalgia

Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral intervention for juvenile primary fibromyalgia syndrome.
Kashikar-Zuck S, Swain NF, Jones BA, Graham TB. J Rheumatol. 2005 Aug;32(8):1594-602.

Educating patients: self-management approaches.
Burckhardt CS. Disabil Rehabil. 2005 Jun 17;27(12):703-9.

Sustained improvement produced by nonpharmacologic intervention in fibromyalgia: results of a pilot study.
Creamer P, Singh BB, Hochberg MC, Berman BM. Arthritis Care Res. 2000 Aug;13(4):198-204.

Cortical reorganisation and chronic pain: implications for rehabilitation.
Flor H. J Rehabil Med. 2003 May;(41 Suppl):66-72.

Operant behavioral treatment of fibromyalgia: a controlled study.
Thieme K, Gromnica-Ihle E, Flor H. Arthritis Rheum. 2003 Jun 15;49(3):314-20.

The effect of guided imagery and amitriptyline on daily fibromyalgia pain: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial.
Fors EA, Sexton H, Gotestam KG. J Psychiatr Res. 2002 May-Jun;36(3):179-87.

Biofeedback/relaxation training and exercise interventions for fibromyalgia: a prospective trial.
Buckelew SP, Conway R, Parker J, Deuser WE, Read J, Witty TE, Hewett JE, Minor M, Johnson JC, Van Male L, McIntosh MJ, Nigh M, Kay DR. Arthritis Care Res. 1998 Jun;11(3):196-209.

Autogenic training versus Erickson's analogical technique in treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome.
Rucco V, Feruglio C, Genco F, Mosanghini R. Riv Eur Sci Med Farmacol. 1995 Jan-Feb;17(1):41-50.

Controlled trial of hypnotherapy in the treatment of refractory fibromyalgia.
Haanen HC, Hoenderdos HT, van Romunde LK, Hop WC, Mallee C, Terwiel JP, Hekster GB. The Journal of Rheumatology. 1991 Jan;18(1):72-5.

Headache

Effect of autogenic training on drug consumption in patients with primary headache: an 8-month follow-up study.
Zsombok T, Juhasz G, Budavari A, Vitrai J, Bagdy G. Headache. 2003 Mar;43(3):251-7.

Treatment outcome expectancies and hypnotic susceptibility as moderators of pain reduction in patients with chronic tension-type headache.
Spinhoven P, ter Kuile MM. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2000 Jul;48(3):290-305.

Preliminary investigation of associations of illness schemata and treatment-induced reduction in headaches.
Narduzzi KJ, Nolan RP, Reesor K, Jackson T, Spanos NP, Hayward AA, Scott HA. Psychol Rep. 1998 Feb;82(1):299-307.

Outcome of biofeedback-assisted relaxation for neurocardiogenic syncope and headache: a clinical replication series.
McGrady AV, Bush EG, Grubb BP. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 1997 Mar;22(1):63-72.

Cognitive coping and appraisal processes in the treatment of chronic headaches.
ter Kuile MM, Spinhoven P, Linssen AC, van Houwelingen HC. Pain. 1996 Feb;64(2):257-64.

Responders and nonresponders to autogenic training and cognitive self-hypnosis: prediction of short- and long-term success in tension-type headache patients.
ter Kuile MM, Spinhoven P, Linssen AC. Headache. 1995 Nov-Dec;35(10):630-6.

Autogenic training and cognitive self-hypnosis for the treatment of recurrent headaches in three different subject groups.
ter Kuile MM, Spinhoven P, Linssen AC, Zitman FG, Van Dyck R, Rooijmans HG. Pain. 1994 Sep;58(3):331-40.

Autogenic training and self-hypnosis in the control of tension headache.
Spinhoven P, Linssen AC, Van Dyck R, Zitman FG. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1992 Nov;14(6):408-15.

Hypnosis and autogenic training in the treatment of tension headaches: a two-phase constructive design study with follow-up.
Zitman FG, van Dyck R, Spinhoven P, Linssen AC. J Psychosom Res. 1992 Apr;36(3):219-28.

The management of craniofacial pain in a pain relief unit.
Hillman L, Burns MT, Chander A, Tai YM. Anesth Pain Control Dent. 1992 Spring;1(2):85-9.

Treatment of chronic tension-type headache with hypnotherapy: a single-blind time controlled study.
Melis PM, Rooimans W, Spierings EL, Hoogduin CA. Headache. 1991 Nov;31(10):686-9.

A tape-recorded test of hypnotic susceptibility for screening headache patients: a feasibility study of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A.
Primavera JP 3rd, Patterson S. Headache. 1991 Oct;31(9):619-21.

Autogenic training and future oriented hypnotic imagery in the treatment of tension headache: outcome and process.
VanDyck R, Zitman FG, Linssen AC, Spinhoven P. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1991 Jan;39(1):6-23.

Comparison of self-hypnosis and propranolol in the treatment of juvenile classic migraine.
Olness K, MacDonald JT, Uden DL. Pediatrics. 1987 Apr;79(4):593-7.

Results of a controlled, experimental, outcome study of nondrug treatments for the control of migraine headaches.
Sargent J, Solbach P, Coyne L, Spohn H, Segerson J. J Behav Med. 1986 Jun;9(3):291-323.

A comparison of treatments for prefrontal muscle contraction headache.
Schlutter LC, Golden CJ, Blume HG. Br J Med Psychol. 1980 Mar;53(1):47-52.

Temperature biofeedback and relaxation training in the treatment of migraine headaches. One-year follow-up.
Silver BV, Blanchard EB, Williamson DA, Theobald DE, Brown DA. Biofeedback Self Regul. 1979 Dec;4(4):359-66.

Clinical follow-up: treatment and outcome of functional headache patients treated with biofeedback.
Russ KL, Hammer RL, Adderton M. J Clin Psychol. 1979 Jan;35(1):148-53.

Biofeedback therapy for migraine headaches.
Turin A, Johnson WG. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976 Apr;33(4):517-9.

Dentistry

The use of hypnosis in dentistry: a review.
Patel B, Potter C, Mellor AC. Dent Update. 2000 May;27(4):198-202.

Medical hypnosis for temporomandibular disorders: treatment efficacy and medical utilization outcome.
Simon EP, Lewis DM. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000 Jul;90(1):54-63.

Tape-recorded hypnosis instructions as adjuvant in the care of patients scheduled for third molar surgery.
Ghoneim MM, Block RI, Sarasin DS, Davis CS, Marchman JN. Anesth Analg. 2000 Jan;90(1):64-8.

Psychophysical pain control during tooth extraction.
Herod EL. Gen Dent. 1995 May-Jun;43(3):267-9.

The use of hypnosis for temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
Dubin LL. Psychiatr Med. 1992;10(4):99-103.

Suggestive hypnotherapy for nocturnal bruxism: a pilot study.
Clarke JH, Reynolds PJ. Am J Clin Hypn. 1991 Apr;33(4):248-53.

Psychologic considerations in temporomandibular dysfunction. A biopsychosocial view of symptom formation.
Grzesiak RC. Dent Clin North Am. 1991 Jan;35(1):209-26.